Financial stress

Definitions

Being afraid of being unable to meet one’s financial obligations or responsibilities (@northern2010, @heckman2014, @falconier2019)
Subjective, unpleasant feeling that one is unable to meet financial demands, afford necessities of life, and have sufficient funds to make ends meet, i.e. having enough income to meet expenses and pay all bills in a particular period (@davis2004, @yates2007, @mejiacordova2017, @tito-betancur2021, @rahman2021)
Psychophysiological response to the perception of imbalance, uncertainty, and risk in financial management and decision making (@heo2020)
Psychological factor representing an increased uncertainty about one’s financial situation and perceived financial hardship (@fan2022)
Psychological stress resulted from financial strain, subjection to negative financial events, such as changes to current financial position and emergencies that require sum of money beyond the normal capacity of the individual (@kim2006, @mahdzan2019)
Condition of economic difficulty, characterized by not being able to support one’s expenses; suggests it’s a different concept than financial well-being (@sorgente2023)
Psychological stress individuals face due to a change in financial situation, inability to manage finances or lack of resources to achieve goals (@ozyuksel2022)
Organism’s response to a situation perceived as threatening or challenging (@tito-betancur2023)
Psychological construct that reflects a state where pressing financial concerns surpass available resources, endangering well-being, and includes (@vandijk2022, @simonse2024):
- Situational appraisals:
  - Insufficient financial resources (captures the harmfulness of the situation)
  - Lack of control over one’s financial situation (perceived ability to deal with the harmfulness adequately)
- Cognitive responses: short-term focus
- Affective responses: financial worries and rumination
Refers to stresses caused by financial situations, including personal and family money matters (@joo1998)
Difficulty faced by an individual or a household in meeting basic financial commitments due to a shortage of money, consisting of three dimensions (@bray2001, @koomson2022):
- Missing out
- Cashflow problems
- Hardship
Worries or emotional discomfort about money and one’s financial situation (@lindberg2021, @mansor2022. @xiao2022)
State of physiological or emotional arousal resulting from the perception of financial hardship (@park2017)
The response to a real or perceived danger to one’s standard of living/finances, as a subdomain of financial distress (@rosso2024)
Pressure or discomfort of an individual in managing his own financial resources (@andriansyah2025)
Feeling stressed about personal finances in general (@heckman2014)
Represents the strain in a household associated with either a lack of financial resources (hardship problems) or an inability to manage the available resources (cashflow problems) (@breunig2019)
Combination of physical arousal and emotional responses influenced by financial stimuli such as urgent payment @grable2015
Emotional reaction to present financial circumstances that may not be solved only by financial counseling or financial coaching (@lopezalvarado2021)
Persistent inability to afford the basic necessities of life @aslund2014
Problems that arise when a person is faced with the threat of a shortage of money in combination with a lack of cash reserves and difficulties making ends meet (@starrin2009)
Has two broad domains, material and psychological (@loibl2022):
- Material domain reflects difficulty paying monthly bills and difficulty accumulating sufficient savings
- Psychological domain is related to individual’s sense of mastery and coping abilities to increased feelings of hopelessness, frustration and anxiety
A complexity engagement, general financial responsibilities due to lack of money (@rahman2021)
The extent to which individuals perceive that their financial demands exceed their ability to meet those demands (@serido2014)
Subjective feelings or perception of an individual’s financial conditions for the latter (@park2017)
Partly viewed as a situation where a person fails to prioritize their household budget appropriately (@amonhaemanon2024)
A subjective measure of economic stress (@takeuchi1991)
Condition in which a company or individual cannot generate income because it is unable to meet or cannot pay its financial obligations @kosminsky2020
Perceived ability of one’s income to fulfil financial obligations; also referred to subjective income stress, is influenced by cognitive and affective evaluation, comparison-driven perceptions, needs or wants and temporal variation (@sinclair2016)
Termed as personal financial stress, is the perception that one does not have sufficient financial resources to meet one’s needs (@spoelma2024)
Also referred to as financial-related psychological stress or distress when they do not have adequado income, wealth, or debt to afford economic hardship (@friedline2021)
Individual’s perception of financial inadequacy and her/his financial concerns and worries (@wei2024)
Negative emotional responde people experience when their financial situation exposes them to uncertainty and constrains their current and future choices (@danahy2024)

Theoretical frameworks

Cognitive-transactional stress theory:
- @heo2020 frames this theory in the sense that financial stress is a phenomenon in which a particular environment causes a person’s individual response
- @lim2014 suggests self-efficacy operates as a cognitive mediator of stress within this framework
- @tito-betancur2023 cites this theory in his framework on how to analyze stress generated by social conflicts
- @guan2022: the individual’s subjetive perception, as well its expectation, may mediate the relationship between objetive financial stressors and the degree of financial stress
- @xiao2022: consider debt delinquency a stressor, financial stress the outcome, and to reduce that, people seek coping resources, like financial capability
- @ryu2023 suggests this theory as explanation to a domain-specific perceived source of stress
- @serido2014: uses this framework to approach financial stress
- @tran2018: underscore the presence of stress does not guarantee an aversive health outcome, as adaptive coping can disrupt the stress-outcome link
- @ozyuksel2022: explained the pervasive nature of stress on psychology and physiology
Systemic‐transactional theory:
- @falconier2019 proposed that one may cope with stress individually and/or may seek and/or receive assistance from partners to cope, and vice-versa, engaging a process of mutual support/coping
Roy adaptation theory:
- @heckman2014 suggested in this framework that financial stressors are stimuli to the individual, an adaptative system, which processes them based on coping mechanisms
Social causation theory:
- @guan2022: when measured by income and financial hardships, financial stress can be related to a context of economic uncertainty, unhealthy lifestyle, bad living environment and other social variables
Social selection theory:
- @guan2022: individuals with poor mental health are at risk of bad financial situations and prone to expend on healthcare: decreased productivity ⇒ unemployment ⇒ decreased income
Simple ABCX theory:
- @choi2020: posited that job insecurity acts as an event that may induce a level of financial stress, financial well-being functions as either a resource or a conditioning factor of the perception of the stressor
- @lopezalvarado2021: financial stressors lead to financial stress, which could lead to two potential outcomes such as maladaptation or bonadaptation
- @park2017: argues that a financial stressor can be viewed as a stimulus that forces an individual to change behavior
- @wei2014: economic hardship intensifies financial pressures on the family, leading to marital conflict and inadequate parenting
Family systems theory:
- @wickrama2021: suggested that individuals in close relationships are interconnected and interdependent, in which struggles can faze the network between them, summing effects of exposures and problems
Stress process theory:
- @loibl2022: a person’s economic circumstances affect their exposure to stress, which lead to worry and feeling upset about financial burdens
- @hughes2014: as a type of stress, financial stress may be associated with elevated depressive symptoms
- @ryu2023: uses this theory to subside the process caused by stress, which lead to consequences on mental health
- @wickrama2021: explain stress and its responses may proliferate across multiple domains over the life course
- @tran2018: support (instrumental, informational, emotional) from others can be an important social advantage to nerf stressors
- @joo1998: many activities of daily life and many changes to succeed are closely related to current levels of personal financial resources
- @danahy2024: allows the possibility to test assumptions about new potential correlates through nuanced pathways
Strength and vulnerability integration theory:
- @loibl2022: older adults can experience stress when facing longer-term exposure, despite the strengths of their experience and adaptation
Ecological systems theory:
- @montpetit2015: interpret the relationships between well-being, financial stress, neighborhood, and social integration as mesosystems
Life-cycle theory of saving:
- @ploszaj2024: the relationship between financial stress and age supports the pattern of saving/dissaving pressure during the life-cycles
- @xiao2022: over lifespan, one’s income level and consumption level are stable, so that, when income shocks occur, borrowing is needed to smooth consumption
- @joo1998: the financial stress severity may vary according to one’s stage in life
Identity-relevant stress hypothesis:
- @hughes2014: when a stressor threatens a valued identity, its effects on mental health are even more adversely, unless the identity greatly influences stress appraisal
Self-efficacy theory:
- @lim2014: refers to benefits expected from high-levels of self-efficacy, specially on mental and physical health
- @heckman2014: argues that higher financial self-efficacy should elicit positive financial behaviors
Prospect Theory:
- @amonhaemanon2024: suggests gamblers have heightened loss aversion as financial stress enters the game
Social role theory:
- @spoelma2024: uses this framework to justify why leaders may suffer financial stress unequally, based on their genders
Tend-and-befriend theory:
- @spoelma2024: financial stress should be associated with elevated communion-striving motivation and empathic leadership, among women
Double ABCX theory:
- @mejiacordova2017: the accumulation of familial tensions and stressors lead the family system to collapse, leading to worse functioning and well-being, according to its capacity of adaptation
- @joo1998: bases his conceptual model of personal financial wellness and worker job productivity on the aspects that rule stressors and adaptation, adapted to individuals
Yerkes-Dodson law:
- @ozyuksel2022: explained why when financial stress level is either low or high, the performance may deteriorate
Job demands-resources theory:
- @wei2024: financial stress may evoke both work engagement and performance, but this relationship might be influenced by emotional exhaustion

Measurements

Formal scales

Ad-hoc measures

@heckman2014 used 1-item measure: ‘I feel stressed about my personal finances in general’
@baker2019 assessed financial stress using three statements: general financial stress, stress over monthly expenses, and stress over paying for school.
@bailey1998 used the following items:
- ‘Inadequate income’
- ‘Disagreements over how to spend money’
- ‘Lack of savings’
- ‘Employer policy on payment of wages creates problems’
- ‘I am paid fairly for what I do’
@mansor2022 measured financial stress through a 6-item instrument:
- ‘I couldn’t sleep because I was worried about paying the bill’
- ‘I am getting depressed and restless with my current financial situation’
- ‘I can’t afford (financially) to see a doctor when I’m sick’
- ‘I can’t afford (financially) to get healthier food’
- ‘I have high blood pressure due to financial difficulties’
- ‘I’m worried about medical expenses’
- ‘I became depressed as a result of thinking about finances’
@breunig2019 measured financial stress asking if, in the last 12 months, happened:
- ‘Inability to pay the mortgage or rent on time’
- ‘Inability to pay bills on time’
- ‘Pawning or selling something’
- ‘Asking for financial help from family or friends’
- ‘Asking help from welfare or community organisations’
- ‘Inability to heat the home’
- ‘Missing meals’
@fan2022 constructed a latent variable using:
- ‘I worry about running out of money’
- ‘Thinking about my personal finances can make me feel anxious’
- ‘Discussing my finances can make my heart race or make me feel stressed’
@lim2014 measure financial stress with a factor score:
- ‘I feel stressed about my personal finances’
- ‘I worry about being able to pay monthly expenses’
- ‘I worry about having enough money to pay for school’
- ‘How much stress does the total amount of money you owe cause you?’
- ‘How much stress does credit card debt cause you?’
- ‘Hou much stress does student loan debt cause you?’
@lazarevic2016 used a single item: ‘How often do you worry about your financial situation?’
@aslund2014 used the following items:
- ‘During the past 12 months, has it been difficult for you to pay your monthly costs, such as rent, mortgage, etc.?’
- ‘If you suddenly ended up in an unforeseen situation where you had to raise € 2100, would you be able to?’
@siahpush2007 asked if, in the past 6 months:
- ‘Could not pay electricity, gas, or telephone bills on time?’
- ‘Could not pay the mortgage or rent on time?’
- ‘Pawned or sold something?’
- ‘Went without meals?’
- ‘Was unable to heat home?’
- ‘Did you asked for financial help from friends or family?’
- ‘Did you asked for help from a welfare/community organization?’
- ‘Could you raise, within a week, AUS$ 2000 for an emergency?’
@starrin2009 created a weighted questionnaire:
- ‘During the last three months has it been difficult for you to pay your monthly costs, like rent, mortgages and so on?’
- ‘During the last three months, have you been forced to raise money for your monthly costs by taking extra measures?’
- ‘During the last three months, have you been forced to limit or refrain from buying necessary things because of lack of money?’
- ‘If you suddenly ended up in an unforeseen situation where you have to raise SEK 18k, would you be able to?’
@loibl2022 measured objetive and subjective domains:
- ‘How difficult is it for you to meet monthly payments on your bills?’
- ‘Please read the list below and indicate whether or not any of these are current and ongoing problems that have lasted twelve months or longer. If the problem is happening to you, indicate how upsetting it has been.’
@lopezalvarado2021 tested asking:
- How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statements:
  - ‘Discussing my finances can make my heart race or make me feel stressed’
  - ‘Thinking about my personal finances can make me feel anxious’
  - ‘I worry about running out of money in retirement’
  - ‘I have too much debt right now’
  - ‘In a typical month, how difficult is it for you to cover your expenses and pay all your bills?’
- Or by a yes/no questions on having: ‘collector calls’, ‘unpaid medical bills’, and ‘income drop’
@montpetit2015 used these questions:
- ‘How would you rate your current financial situation?’
- ‘Looking ahead ten years into the future, what do you expect your financial situation will be like at that time?’
- ‘How much control do you have over your current financial situation?’
- ‘How much thought and effort do you put into your current financial situation?’
- ‘In general, which of the statements below describes the current financial situation of you and your family? Have enough money, doesn’t have enough money, or has more than enough money’
@phillips2022 used items from the ABS Survey of Income and Housing:
- ‘Assistance sought from welfare/community organisations due to shortage of money’
- ‘Pawned or sold something due to shortage of money’
- ‘Sought financial help from friends/family due to a shortage of money’
- ‘Unable to heat home due to shortage of money’
- ‘Went without meals due to shortage of money’
- ‘Whether could not pay gas/electricity/telephone bill on time due to shortage of money’
- ‘Whether could not pay registration/insurance on time due to shortage of money’
- ‘Could not raise $2000 within a week’
- ‘Could not raise $500 within a week’
- ‘Spend more money than we get’
- ‘Could not make minimum repayment on credit card’
- ‘Went without dental treatment due to shortage of money’
- ‘Could not pay mortgage or rent on time due to shortage of money’
- ‘Could not pay home or contents insurance due to shortage of money’
@hamilton2019 measured financial stress focusing on debt: ‘In the past 12 months, how much stress did you feel because of your total debt, if any? Would you say a great deal of stress, quite a bit of stress, some stress, very little stress or no stress at all?’
@xiao2022 used four dependent variables of financial stress:
- ‘I worry about running out of money’
- ‘Thinking about my personal finances can make me feel anxious’
- ‘Discussing my finances can make my heart race or make me feel stressed’
@kareholt2025 measured with two questions as an index:
- ‘How satisfied are you with your financial situation?’
- ‘Is your financial situation now better or worse than before?’
@serido2014 uses three index measures:
- Financial strain, asking whether in the past 12 months:
  - ‘Was without telephone service for any reason?’
  - ‘Did noy pay the full amount of the rent or mortgage because you did not have money?’
  - ‘Did not pay the full amount of gas, electricity or oil bill because you did not have enough money?’
- Lack of financial access, banked status:
  - ‘Do you have a savings account?’
  - ‘Do you have a credit card?’
  - ‘Do you have a checking account?’
- Public assistance, assessing financial hardship: ‘Have you ever received any public assistance or welfare payments other than food stamps?’
@amonhaemanon2024 asked questions on worry over delay in payment and financial conditions:
- ‘Do you have fearful thoughts about your financial future?’
- ‘Do you feel powerless or experience a loss of control when it comes to money?’
- ‘Is money your ‘scapegoat’, the reason you give yourself for not living the life you want?’
@sturgeon2016:
- ‘Have a major worsening of financial condition’
- ‘Been pressured to pay bills by stores, creditors, or bill collectors’
- ‘Been unable to pay to medication or other medical necessities’
- ‘Fallen behind in paying the rent or mortgage’
- ‘Been unable to purchase needed food’
- ‘Had a car, furniture, or some items bought on an installment plan repossessed’
@taylor2017 tackled household financial strain in the last 12 months:
- ‘Has an adult in the household lost their job?’
- ‘Could not pay gas, electricity or telephone bills?’
- ‘Could not pay the mortgage or rent payments?’
- ‘Were unable to pay for school requirements or extras?’
@wei2014 measured family financial stress through:
- ‘My household is poor and in need of money’
- ‘I was hope to pay lower medical fees for my children when they are sick or injured’
- ‘I hope the tuition of my children to be reduced’
@yates2007 suggested financial stress indicators:
- ‘Could not pay gas/electricity/telephone bill on time’
- ‘Sought financial help from friends/family’
- ‘Could not pay registration/insurance on time’
- ‘Pawned or sold something’
- ‘Went without meals’
- ‘Sought assistance from welfare/community organisations’
- ‘Unable to heat home’
@mejiacordova2017: ‘Como calificaria su nivel de estrés financiero?’
@kim2006 appraised perceived stress and retirement income security:
- ‘What do you feel is the level of your financial stress today?’
- ‘How secure do you feel about your personal finances for retirement?’
@lindberg2021: ‘How often do you worry about how much money your family has?’
@jeworrek2025 asked:
- ‘How concerned are you about your current financial situation?’
- ‘How concerned are you about not maintaining your current standard of living in old age?’
@danahy2024 assessed agreement to:
- ‘I have enough money to participate in most of the same activities as my peers’
- ‘I feel stressed about my personal finances in general’
- ‘I worry about being able to pay my current monthly expenses’
- ‘I worry about having enough money to pay for school’
@sorgente2023, on subjective financial stress:
- ‘During the past 24 hours, how much has your economic and financial life stressed you out?’
@sergeyev2023:
- ‘On a scale 1 to 10, how concerned are you about your current financial situation?’
@kaastra2025:
- ‘Number of missed payments in the last 12 months’
- ‘Number of months with expenses <90% of inflow’
- ‘Number of months that customers can overcome a loss of inflow’
- ‘Monthly short-term debt versus inflow’
@warren2024:
- ‘Spending is less than income’
- ‘Pay all bills on time’
- ‘Have enough savings to cover at least 3 months of living expenses’
- ‘Have a manageable amount of debt or no debt’

Determinants

Age

@digiacomo2020: informal carers younger than 65 years have greater financial stress (OR=2.54), controlling for household income, caring hours, types of disease, types of disease and type of care
@siahpush2007 suggested older adults experience less financial stress, while controlling for sociodemographic and health variables: 25-39 (OR=0.53), 40-54 (OR=0.27), and >55 (OR=0.10), in comparison to the 18-24 group
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged age protected against bill-paying difficulty (OR=0.94) and ongoing financial strain (OR=0.95) among older adults
@lopezalvarado2021 showed an inverse relationship between age and financial stress:
- 30-37y (vs. >63) led to increased financial stress (β=0.07)
- 38-45y (vs. >63) led to increased financial stress (β=0.07)
- 46-53y (vs. >63) led to increased financial stress (β=0.05)
- 54-62y (vs. >63) led to increased financial stress (β=0.05)
@phillips2022, adjusting by demographic and personal variables, age groups of the head of the household were related to financial stress:
- <35y (vs. >74) led to decreased financial stress (OR=0.36)
- 35-49y (vs. >74) led to increased financial stress (OR=3.56)
- 50-64y (vs. >74) led to increased financial stress (OR=6.35)
@ploszaj2024 showed age in years was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=-0.02)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=0.3)
- For financial hardship (β=0.02)
@hamilton2019: compared to the 40-49y age group, being older was protective against debt stress:
- Little debt stress: 50-64y (OR=0.63), >65 (OR=0.34)
- Some debt stress: 50-64y (OR=0.67), >65 (OR=0.25)
- Quite a bit of debt stress: 50-64y (OR=0.58), >65 (OR=0.24)
- Great debt stress: 50-64y (OR=0.55), >65 (OR=0.63)
@simonse2024 found age to be a protective factor against financial stress, considering:
- Higher-order construct (β=-0.12), and:
  - Money shortage domain (β=-0.14)
  - Lack of control domain (β=-0.11)
  - Worries domain (β=-0.07)
  - Short-focus domain (β=-0.06)
@dunn2016: being older was related with decreased debt stress (b=-0.02)
@koomson2022: being older (age in logarithmic scale) is protective against financial stress (β=-0.11), among gamblers
@yates2007 suggested older age groups (>65 years old) experience less financial stress:
- Age <25 (OR=12.74)
- Age 25-34 (OR=9.46)
- Age 35-44 (OR=8.84)
- Age 45-64 (OR=5.18)
@sergeyev2023 showed age has an inverted-U pattern, with a turning point on 47 years:
- Raw age (b=0.02)
- Age²/100 (b=-0.11)

Gender

@heckman2014: males were less likely to experience financial stress (OR=0.62)
@siahpush2007: males have decreased risk of reporting financial stress (OR=0.73)
@lopezalvarado2021: female gender was associated with increased financial stress (β=0.03)
@phillips2022: male gender was related to decreased financial stress (OR=0.95)
@hamilton2019: female gender was associated with increased likelihood of suffering (vs. no debt stress):
- Some debt stress (OR=1.5)
- Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=1.64)
- Great debt stress (OR=1.9)
@simonse2024: male gender (vs. female) was related to decreased financial stress levels, for:
- Higher-order construct (β=-0.12)
- Worries domain (β=-0.17)
@xiao2022: male gender (vs. female) was associated with financial stress (β=-0.07)
@dunn2016: male gender (vs. female) was related with decreased financial stress (b=-0.23)
@koomson2022: female gender (vs. male) is a risk factor for financial stress (β=0.03), among gamblers
@wei2024: female gender (vs. male) led to increased financial stress (b=0.10)
@danahy2024: being male (vs. female) was protective against financial stress (b=-0.04)
@sergeyev2023: being female (vs. male) was a risk to financial stress (b=0.21)
@warren2024: LGBTQIA+ (vs. other) have increased odds of being financially vulnerable (OR=1.60)

Marital status

@siahpush2007: single (OR=1.23) and separated (OR=1.53) adults (vs. married/living with someone) have increased risk of financial stress, controlling for sociodemographic and health variables
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged separated, divorced or widowed marital status predicted bill-paying difficulty (OR=1.23) among older adults
@ploszaj2024 showed being married (vs. otherwise) was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=-0.23)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=-0.24)
- For financial hardship (β=-0.25)
@hamilton2019: compared to married or cohabitating individuals, being separated predicted debt stress (vs. no debt stress):
- Little debt stress (OR=1.47)
- Some debt stress (OR=2.10)
- Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=2.48)
- Great debt stress (OR=3.19)
@dunn2016: being married (vs. nonmarried) led to increased debt stress (b=0.14)
@koomson2022 found different relationships between marital status and financial stress (vs. single), among gamblers:
- Married (β=-0.06)
- Defacto (β=0.03)
- Separated (β=0.04)
- Divorced (β=0.03)
- Widowed (β=-0.04)
@sergeyev2023: being married (vs. non-married) led to increased financial stress (b=0.13)

Ethnicity

@heckman2014: Black students were less likely to report financial stress (OR=0.48)
@lopezalvarado2021: Hispanic adults (vs. White) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.02)
@xiao2022 found ethnicities to predict financial stress (compared to White):
- Black (β=-0.08)
- Hispanic (β=-0.02)
- Asian/others (β=-0.01)
@dunn2016: being Hispanic (vs. other groups) is a risk for increased debt stress (b=0.24)
@danahy2024: being Black (vs. White) was related to decreased financial stress (b=-0.16)
@warren2024 found important relationship between ethnicity and financial stress:
- Black households (vs. White) have increased financial stress (OR=2.74)
- Latinx household (vs. White) have increased financial stress (OR=20.1)

Debt

@heckman2014 found different types of debt were related to financial stress:
- Above average expected student loan (OR=2.8)
- Current debt (OR=1.78)
- Debt delinquency(OR=1.51)
@bray2001:
- Consumer debt repayment was related to increased financial stress (OR=1.1)
- Student loan repayment was related to decreased financial stress (OR=0.93)
@mansor2022: increased debt vulnerability is related with increased financial stress (β=0.45) in low-income households, controlled by financial behavior, financial knowledge, financial well-being, income and locus of control
@breunig2019 found that:
- For non-Indigenous Australians: mortgage debt predicted household financial stress (OR=8.16)
- For Indigenous Australians: mortgage debt led to increased household financial stress (OR=9.97)
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables, using lagged predictors:
- Credit card debt amount predicted both bill-paying difficulty (OR=1.6) and ongoing financial strain (OR=1.9) among older adults
- Total 1st residence mortgage balance predicted both bill-paying difficulty (OR=1.04) and ongoing financial strain (OR=1.05) among older adults
@lopezalvarado2021: both reported high debt (β=0.22) and inability to pay the bills (β=0.24) were related to increased financial stress
@ploszaj2024 showed both mortgage and credit card debt were associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- Mortgage:
  - For any financial stress (β=0.13)
  - For cashflow problems stress (β=0.13)
  - For financial hardship (β=0.16)
- Credit card:
  - For any financial stress (β=-0.12)
  - For cashflow problems stress (β=-0.16)
@simonse2024 suggested the number of debts is related to increased financial stress:
- For higher-level construct (β=0.22)
- And for the components
  - Money shortage (β=0.21)
  - Lack of control (β=0.22)
  - Financial worries (β=0.11)
@xiao2022 showed debt predicted financial stress, either by:
- Debt payment delinquency, as per:
  - Mortgage (β=0.09), moderated by financial capability (β=0.05)
  - Credit card (β=0.11), moderated by financial capability (β=0.07)
  - Student loan (β=0.04), moderated by financial capability (β=0.05)
- Student loan ownership (β=0.06, vs. non-holders)
@dunn2016 found debt type-to-income ratios to be related with debt stress:
- Payday loan debt (b=2.20)
- Credit card debt (b=1.03)
- Student loan debt (b=0.46)
- Family, friends, other loans debt (b=0.43)
- Bank loan debt (b=0.41)
- Installment loan debt (b=0.34)
- Heloc debt (b=0.33)
- Mortgage debt (b=0.28)
@amonhaemanon2024: monthly debt repayment was an important financial stressor (OR=1.14)
@danahy2024 showed student loan debt amount was proportional to financial stress severity:
- A maximum of $10k debt (vs. none) was related with increased stress (b=0.38)
- 60k debt (vs. none) was related with very high increases in financial stress (b=0.96)
@warren2024: households with outstanding credit card debt had increased financial stress (OR=3.16)

Wealth

@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged net cash assets protected against bill-paying difficulty (OR=0.92) and ongoing financial strain (OR=0.95) among older adults
@phillips2022, adjusting by demographic and personal variables:
- Increased wealth (log) was related with decreased financial stress (OR=0.65)
- This relationship was moderated by age: <35y (OR=1.09), 35-49y (OR=0.44), and 50-64y (OR=0.89)
@dunn2016: assets (log) was a protection factor against debt stress (b=-0.11)
@sergeyev2023: net financial assets amount was protective against financial stress (b=-0.11)

Income

@digiacomo2020: lower income (>60k AUD) is associated with greater financial stress in informal carers (OR=2.69)
@mansor2022: in low-income households, increased income vulnerability relates to increased financial stress (β=0.07), controlled by financial behavior, financial knowledge, financial well-being, debt and locus of control
@bray2001:
- Households subsided by pension (compared to self-employed, investments, and wages) suffer from greater financial stress (OR=1.25)
- Lower income (comparing in quintiles) is associated with greater financial stress (OR=1.93)
@breunig2019 found:
- For non-Indigenous Australians: increased log(income) decreased household financial stress (OR=0.74), moderated by mortgage debt (OR=0.65)
- For Indigenous Australians: increased log(income) decreased household financial stress (OR=0.65), moderated by mortgage debt (OR=0.68), having children (OR=0.67) and having a partner (OR=0.81)
@siahpush2007: household income is inversely proportional to financial stress, controlling for sociodemographic and health variables: 25-49k (OR=0.82), 50-74k (OR=0.62), and >75k (OR=0.42), in comparison to <25k
@lopezalvarado2021, controlling for sociodemographic characteristics:
- Reported income drop was related to increased financial stress (β=0.14)
- <25 USD income (vs. >100k) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.02)
- 25-49k USD income (vs. >100k) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.04)
- 50-74k USD income (vs. >100k) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.02)
- 75-100k USD income (vs. >100k) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.03)
@ploszaj2024 showed household income (log) was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=-0.35)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=-0.28)
- For financial hardship (β=-0.41)
@hamilton2019 supported that household income is protective against debt stress (vs. no debt stress):
- Some debt stress (OR=0.94)
- Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=0.88)
- Great debt stress (OR=0.78)
@simonse2024 found income amount predicted financial stress:
- For higher-level construct (β=-0.61), being moderated by employment status (β=0.37)
- And for the components
  - Money shortage (β=-0.62), being moderated by employment status (β=0.34) and savings buffer (β=0.20)
  - Lack of control (β=-0.37)
  - Financial worries (β=-0.57), moderated by savings buffer (β=0.16)
  - Short-focus had pure moderation by employment status (β=0.54)
@xiao2022 results suggests income is associated with financial stress, regarding:
- Income (comparing with less than 15k USD): 15-24k (β=0.02), 25-34k (β=0.02), 50-75k (β=-0.02), 75-99k (β=-0.03), 100-149k (β=-0.06), and >150k (β=-0.10)
- Unexpected large income drop in past 12 months (β=0.16, vs. no income drop)
@koomson2022: a higher disposable income (log) was related with decreased financial stress (β=-0.10), among gamblers
@amonhaemanon2024: income amount was related with increased financial stress (OR=1.15)
@yates2007 showed lower income (vs. quintile 5) was associated with increased financial stress: quintile 1 (OR=9.58), quintile 2 (OR=6.12), quintile 3 (OR=4.14), quintile 4 (OR=2.64)
@jeworrek2025 found income >6k€ (vs. <1.5k) was related to decreased financial stress (b=-1.0)
@sergeyev2023: income amount was inversely related to financial stress (b=-0.075)
@warren2024: low-income households (vs. upper-income) have increased financial stress (OR=11.21)

Savings buffer

@simonse2024 found having savings buffer offered considerable protection against financial stress:
- For higher-level construct (β=-0.65)
- And for the components
  - Money shortage (β=-0.59)
  - Lack of control (β=-0.59)
  - Financial worries (β=-0.61)
  - Short-focus (β=-0.30)
@danahy2024: not having emergency savings (vs. having) was related to increased financial stress (b=0.97)

Job insecurity

@choi2020: increased job insecurity was related both directly with increased financial stress (β=0.31), and indirectly, mediated by financial well-being (β=0.04)

Employment status

@bray2001: no employment (compared to retirement, part time, and full time jobs) is related to greater financial stress (OR=1.55)
@siahpush2007: occupation was associated with decreased financial stress, adjusting for sociodemographic and health variables: professional workers (OR=0.81), and white-collars (OR=0.65), in comparison to unemployed adults
@lopezalvarado2021, controlling for sociodemographic characteristics: working status (vs. not working) was related with increased financial stress (β=0.06)
@phillips2022, adjusting by demographic and personal variables, employment status of the head of the household was associated with financial stress:
- Full-time job (OR=0.73), part-time job (OR=0.81), and unemployed (OR=2.22), compared to retired/not in the labor force
@ploszaj2024 showed full-time employment (vs. other) was associated with financial stress in financial hardship (β=-0.23) presentation
@hamilton2019: compared to full-time job, being retired was protective against different levels of debt stress:
- Little debt stress (OR=0.53)
- Some debt stress (OR=0.38)
- Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=0.27)
- Great debt stress (OR=0.17)
@xiao2022 found employment status to be associated with financial stress (comparing with full-time worker):
- Self-employed (β=-0.02)
- Part-time worker (β=-0.03)
- Homemaker (β=-0.04)
- Student (β=-0.03)
- Disabled (β=0.01)
- Retired (β=-0.15)
@koomson2022: being employed (vs. not employed) is protective against financial stress (β=-0.07), among gamblers
@yates2007: having a job (vs. unemployed) predicted decreased financial stress (OR=0.60)
@danahy2024: being employed (vs. unemployed) was related to increased financial stress (b=0.17)
@warren2024: being unemployed (vs. employed) led to increased odds of suffering from financial stress (OR=3.06)

Education

@bray2001: incidence of financial stress (OR=1.32) is higher for households where the income-earner has <12 years of education
@siahpush2007: adults with college degree (vs. less than high school) have decreased risk of reporting financial stress (OR=0.68), adjusting for sociodemographic factors and health variables
@phillips2022: households in which the head had a degree or higher suffered less financial stress (OR=0.79), compared to lower educational level
@ploszaj2024 showed >12y of education (vs. <12y) were associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=0.04)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=0.01)
- For financial hardship (β=0.06)
@hamilton2019: compared high-school or less, being undergraduate is related to increased debt stress (vs. no debt stress):
- Some debt stress (OR=1.33)
- Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=1.56)
- Great debt stress (OR=1.72)
@simonse2024 showed education level predicted financial stress severity:
- For high-order construct (vs. highest level):
  - Primary school (β=-0.37)
  - Pre-vocational (β=-0.38)
  - Senior general secondary (β=-0.29)
  - Pre-university (β=-0.37)
  - Secondary vocational education (β=-0.34)
- For money shortage (vs. highest level): primary school (β=-0.23)
- For lack of control (vs. highest level):
  - Primary school (β=-0.43)
  - Pre-vocational (β=-0.36)
  - Pre-university (β=-0.31)
  - Secondary vocational education (β=-0.30)
- For worries (vs. highest level):
  - Pre-vocational (β=-0.32)
  - Senior general secondary (β=-0.31)
  - Pre-university (β=-0.34)
  - Secondary vocational education (β=-0.32)
@xiao2022 found a relationship between education levels and financial stress (comparing to high school diploma or lower):
- Undergraduate (β=0.04)
- Bachelor degree (β=0.03)
- Post-bachelor degree (β=0.03)
@koomson2022 results suggest higher education leads to decreased financial stress (vs. < year 11), among gamblers:
- Certificate (β=0.04)
- Bachelor (β=-0.03)
- Graduate diploma (β=-0.01)
- Postgraduate (β=-0.02)
@danahy2024 found the number of years in college was proportionally related with financial stress severity:
- 2 years (vs. 1 year) had lower financial stress (b=-0.07)
- 5 years (vs. 1 year) had very low financial stress (b=-0.20)
@sergeyev2023: high school or less (vs. some college) led to decreased financial stress (b=-0.17)

Tenure

@bray2001 found that private renters (compared to public rental, homeowners, purchaser, and other) had higher financial stress (OR=6.35)
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged annual rent costs predicted both bill-paying difficulty (OR=1.28) and ongoing financial strain (OR=1.30) among older adults
@phillips2022, adjusting by demographic and personal variables, housing tenure by:
- Outright owning was related with decreased financial stress (OR=0.87)
- Mortgage led to increased financial stress (OR=1.15)
@koomson2022: being a outright homeowner (vs. other) is a protective factor against financial stress (β=-0.13), among gamblers
@yates2007: being a private (OR=7.98) or public renter (OR=7.43) was related to increased financial stress (compared to outright owners)
@warren2024: homeowners (vs. renters) have increased odds of financial stress (OR=4.12)

Household composition

@bray2001: sole parents with dependent child suffer greater financial stress (OR=1.75) than other family conformation
@breunig2019 found, for Indigenous Australians, that household with children (compared to those without) have increased financial stress (OR=43.8), although this relationship is moderated by income
@breunig2019 found that:
- For non-Indigenous Australians: log(household size) predicted household financial stress (OR=1.47), moderated by partnership (OR=1.84)
- For Indigenous Australians: increased log(household size) led to increased household financial stress (OR=2.07), moderated by mortgage debt (OR=0.74)
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged number of household members predicted bill-paying difficulty (OR=1.13) and ongoing financial strain (OR=1.16) among older adults
@phillips2022, adjusting by demographic and personal variables, numbers of children and adults were associated with financial stress:
- 2 adults (OR=0.69), 3 adults (OR=1.18). 4 adults (OR=1.78), compared to 1 adult in the house
- 1 child (OR=0.95), 2 children (OR=1.17), 3 children (OR=1.41), compared to no child in the house
- Single parents suffered with increased financial stress (OR=1.5), compared to other than couples and lone person
@ploszaj2024 showed number of children was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=0.10)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=0.10)
- For financial hardship (β=0.07)
@hamilton2019 showed that:
- Compared no child in the household, having children predicted some debt stress vs. no debt stress (OR=1.43)
- Number of residents in household increased debt stress (vs. no debt stress), on:
  - Some debt stress (OR=1.10)
  - Quite a bit of debt stress (OR=1.16)
@simonse2024 found household size was inversely related to financial stress, for:
- Higher-order construct (β=-0.05)
- Worries domain (β=-0.06)
@xiao2022: having dependent child in the household was associated with financial stress (β=0.05)
@dunn2016: having children was related with increased debt stress (b=0.17)
@koomson2022: having children is associated with financial stress (β=0.08), among gamblers’ households
@yates2007: sole parents were more likely to experience financial stress compared to couples without child (OR=4.77)
@sergeyev2023 showed household composition plays an important role on financial stress:
- Having a non-primary earner decreases household financial stress (b=-0.49)
- Having at least one child increases household financial stress (b=0.20)
@warren2024: single women (vs. married) as household head have increased odds of financial stress (OR=1.89)

Depression

@guan2022: individuals with mental health problems are more likely to experience financial stress

Anxiety

@amonhaemanon2024: among gamblers, anxiety was related with increased financial stress (OR=1.16)

Substance abuse

@bray2001:
- households in which members used money to buy alcohol had marginally higher financial stress (OR=1.01)
- households in which members used money to buy tobacco had higher financial stress (OR=1.04)
@siahpush2007 suggested quitters (compared to smokers) have significantly less financial stress (OR=0.75), adjusting for sociodemographic factors and health variables

Self-concept

@heckman2014: being optimistic about future finances predicted decreased financial stress (OR=0.82)
@mansor2022 controversial result: self-confident individuals (internal locus of control) are more likely to experience financial stress (β=0.28), controlled by financial behavior, financial knowledge, financial well-being, debt and income
@danahy2024: increased financial self-efficacy led to decreased odds of increased financial stress (b=-0.17), moderated by savings buffer (b=0.02)

Financial literacy

@lopezalvarado2021: both objective (β=-0.06) and subjective (β=-0.1) financial knowledge scores were associates with decreased financial stress
@ploszaj2024 showed financial literacy was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=-0.04), in which high financial literacy (vs. moderate) is related with increased effect (β=-0.13)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=-0.04), in which high financial literacy (vs. moderate) is related with increased effect (β=-0.12)
- For financial hardship (β=-0.05), in which high financial literacy (vs. moderate) is related with increased effect (β=-0.14)
@xiao2022 found that financial capability was a strong protector against financial stress (β=-0.31)
@amonhaemanon2024 showed financial literacy was related to financial stress:
- Knowing about compound interest (OR=1.40)
- Perceived financial literacy (OR=0.69)
@danahy2024: higher scores on financial socialization was related with decreased financial stress (b=-0.03)

Financial well-being

@choi2020: increased financial well-being led to decreased financial stress (β=-0.11), moderated by income (β=0.25), controlled by employment status
@mejiacordova2017: increased financial well-being was elated to decreased financial stress (β=-0.60)

Financial behavior

@mansor2022: positive financial behavior was associated with decreased financial stress (β=-0.15)
@heckman2014 suggested two financial behaviors related with financial stress:
- Self-reported properly manage of finances (OR=0.67)
- Cashflow problems (OR=1.96)
@koomson2022: being financially resilient is a protective factor against financial stress (β=-0.36), adjusted by gambling severity and socioeconomic controls
@heckman2014: regularly spending more than one’s current saved money (through credit card or borrowing) was related to increased financial stress (OR=1.96)
@amonhaemanon2024 found different financial behaviors related with financial stress, among gamblers:
- Perceived risk tolerance was related with decreased financial stress (OR=0.49)
- Self-control with expenditures (OR=0.85)
@danahy2024 found both positive (b=0.09) and negative (b=0.12) financial behaviors led to increased financial stress:
- While negative financial behaviors were mediated by savings buffer (b=-0.01)

General physical health

@siahpush2007: positively self-rated health led to decreased financial stress (OR=0.81), adjusting for sociodemographic factors and health variables
@loibl2022, controlling for demographic and personal variables: lagged self-rated health protected against bill-paying difficulty (OR=0.76) and ongoing financial strain (OR=0.75) among older adults
@bray2001: households including members with severe or moderate disability restrictions (compared to learning restrictions and health-unrelated disabilities) have higher odds of financial stress (OR=1.78)
@phillips2022: households including at least one person with a disability or a long term health condition have increased odds of financial stress (OR=1.39), compared to those without any condition
@ploszaj2024 showed having health conditions (vs. not having) was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=0.35)
- For cashflow problems stress (β=0.25)
- For financial hardship (β=0.36)
@koomson2022: having long-term illness or disability predicts financial stress (β=0.08) , among gamblers
@warren2024 found physical conditions was related with financial stress:
- People in poor/fair (vs. excellent health) self-related health status have increased odds of being financially stressed (OR=11.08)
- People with disabilities (vs. no disability) have increased financial stress (OR=2.34)

General mental health

@warren2024: household heads with poor/fair mental health (vs. excellent) have increased odds of financial stress (OR=10.86)

@siahpush2007: increased social support was marginally protective against financial stress (OR=0.98), adjusting for sociodemographic factors and health variables

Living location

@ploszaj2024 showed living in regional/remote location (vs. city) was associated with financial stress in different presentations:
- For any financial stress (β=0.12)
- For financial hardship (β=0.22)

Personality

@simonse2024: showed conscientiousness was related to decreased financial stress through the worries domain (β=-0.08)

Financial hardship

@park2017 showed financial hardship (objective indicators) indirectly predicted perceived financial stress, being fully mediated through:
- Perception of the financial situation (β=0.14)
- Social support (β=0.15)
@heckman2014: not having enough money to participate in most of the same activities as peers was related to increased financial stress (OR=5.4)
@amonhaemanon2024 found different hardships were related to financial stress, among gamblers:
- Facing emergency expenditures (OR=1.26)
- Cashflow problems (OR=1.39)
@jeworrek2025 found high financial constraints to be related with increased financial stress (b=1.45)
@sorgente2023: objective financial stress predicted longitudinally subjective financial stress (φ=0.35)
@sergeyev2023: people in severe financial constraint are prone to have higher financial stress (b=7.32)

Historical years

@dunn2016 suggested debt stress was related with economic crisis, so much so after 2008 this metric began to grow, then after 2009 it began to fall

Gambling behavior

@koomson2022 found gambling was related with increased financial stress in different forms:
- Gambling severity score (β=0.24)
- Gambling risk status (β=0.19)
- Number of gambling activities (β=0.26)
- Gambling expenditure (log, β=0.28)
- Play with scratch tickets (β=0.01)
- Play with lottery games (β=-0.01)
- Play with poker machines (β=0.01)
- Play with horse-dogs bettings (β=-0.01)
- No effect of sports bettings, table games, poker, private betting, keno, and bingo
@amonhaemanon2024: gambling for economic reasons was related with increased financial stress (OR=2.5)

Inflammatory markers

@sturgeon2016: patients with high inflammation (IL-6>10 pg/mL or CRP>10 mg/L) were associated with a high financial stress

Country economy

@jeworrek2025 found inflation was related to financial stress:
- High inflation concern (vs. none) was related to increased financial stress (b=2.31)
- High inflation expectation (vs. low) was related to increased financial stress (b=0.02)

Outcomes

Depressive symptoms

@guan2022 review found studies consistently report financial stress increases the risk of depression, with greater effects in low income households and individuals
@starrin2009:
- The combination of high financial stress and increased shaming experiences led to more depressive symptoms, stratified by gender: women (OR=8.9) and men (OR=16.5)
@hughes2014: controlling for demographic and socio-economic variables, financial stress predicted depression severity:
- Money problems led to more depressive symptoms, either:
  - Directly (b=1.49), effect moderated by racial identity (group evaluation; b=-1.01); and indirectly through self-esteem: varying by group evaluation level (low=1.01, mid=0.80, high=0.58), due to moderated mediation (b=0.07)
  - Directly (b=1.37), effect moderated by racial identity (group evaluation; b=-1.08); and indirectly through mastery: varying by group evaluation level (low=1.03, mid=0.85, high=0.67), due to moderated mediation (b=0.09)
- Financial hardship led to more depressive symptoms, either:
  - Directly (b=1.67); indirectly through self-esteem: varying by group evaluation level (low=1.11, mid=0.87, high=0.62), due to moderated mediation (b=0.09)
  - Directly (b=2.43), effect moderated by racial identity (group evaluation; b=1.00); indirectly through family support: varying by group evaluation level (low=0.15, mid=0.10, high=0.05), due to moderated mediation (b=0.13)
@swanton2020 suggests debt stress (as a problem gambling mediator) leads to increased depressive symptoms (β=0.19)

Financial well-being

@mahdzan2019: financial stress is inversely related to financial well-being (β=-0.83), controlled by financial behavior, financial knowledge, internal locus of control, education, and age
@mansor2022: financial stress led to decreased financial well-being (β=-0.11), controlled by financial behavior, financial knowledge, locus of control, debt and income
@fan2022 showed that financial stress was associated with decreased financial well-being (β=-0.45):
- Mediated by long-term positive financial behavior (β=0.16) and by short-term positive financial behavior (β=-0.13)
- Age, race, gender, education, marital status, and income were controlled
@rahman2021 showed financial stress predicted financial well-being, controlled by income, education, employment and socio-demographic variables:
- Directly led to decreased financial well-being (β=-0.25)
- Indirectly, mediated by financial behavior, mildly decreased financial well-being (β=-0.11)

Psychological well-being

@bailey1998: financial stress led to increased personal and work-related stress (β=0.53), controlled for work benefits and compensation-related stress
@aslund2014: high financial stress in the context of low tangible support (vs. low financial stress and high support) is related with poor psychological well-being (OR=6.73 for men; OR=5.89 for woman), controlled for socioeconomic factors
@montpetit2015, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic data:
- Financial stress led to increased psychological well-being (β=-0.43)
- This relationship was moderated by neighborhood stress (β=-0.07)
@sturgeon2016: financial stress predicts psychological well-being (b=-0.17)
@lindberg2021 found decreased psychological well-being among children who report financial stress:
- Worrying about money was related with decreased chance of belonging to high affective well-being group when compared to the low well-being counterpart (OR=0.64)
- Worrying about money led to decreased chance of belonging to high cognitive well-being group, in comparison to the low wel-being group (OR=0.51)

General mental health

@hamilton2019, controlling for socioeconomic and demographical factors, increased debt stress was related to poor-fair mental health (OR=1.51, vs. good-very good-excellent)

Psychological distress

@hamilton2019, increased debt stress was related to moderate-serious psychological distress (OR=1.63, vs. mild-none)
@wickrama2021 found that household midlife stress was longitudinally related to later life psychological distress in husbands (b=0.06)
@swanton2020 suggests debt stress leads (as a problem gambling mediator) to increased psychological distress (β=0.37)
@sturgeon2016 found financial stress was related with psychological distress:
- Directly, increasing it (b=0.18)
- Indirectly, via negative interpersonal events (b=0.03) through a moderated mediation of perceived social status (b=0.06)
@taylor2017 found two financial stress facets that increased psychological distress, among primary caregivers:
- Missing mortgage or rent payment (OR=5.15)
- Adult lost job (OR=3.77)
@wei2014: family financial stress was related with increased mental health problems among household heads (β=0.33)

Loneliness

@wickrama2021 showed that household midlife stress was longitudinally related to later life loneliness in husbands (b=0.05)

Cognitive impairment

@kareholt2025 found financial stress was related to worse cognitive functioning (β=0.09)

Suicide

@carr2018 showed financial stress among patients with gambling disorder was related with suicidal ideation or attempts:
- Directly, OR=1.47
- Indirectly, mediated by familial conflict, OR=1.06

Anxiety symptoms

@tran2018 found financial stress predicted general anxiety:
- Direct effect of increasing anxiety symptoms (b=0.26)
- This effect was moderated by:
  - Gender alone (b=0.20)
  - Family support (b=-0.12), significant only for male students (b=-0.34)
  - Moderated moderation on gender and family (b=0.31), significant for male students reporting low family support (b=0.30), and female for high (b=0.30) and low (b=0.33) support
@ozyuksel2022: financial stress as a source of stress (vs. other sources) predicted levels of anxiety (d=0.40)

General physical health

@aslund2014: high financial stress in the context of low tangible support (vs. low financial stress and high support) is related with increased psychosomatic symptoms (OR=7.45 for men; OR=5.49 for woman), controlled for socioeconomic factors
@hamilton2019, controlling for socioeconomic and demographical factors, increased debt stress was related to poor-fair general health (OR=1.29, vs. good-very good-excellent)
@kareholt2025, controlling for socioeconomic and demographical factors, found financial stress led to increased physical impairment:
- Direct effect: β=0.14
- Mediated by:
  - Smoking status (β=0.01)
  - Sleep disturbances (β=0.01)
@wickrama2021 found that household midlife stress was longitudinally related to later life physical health for both wives (b=0.07) and husbands (b=0.07)
@swanton2020 suggests debt stress leads (as a problem gambling mediator) to decreased well-being (β=-0.26)
@kosminsky2020 reviewed 9 studies that consistently reported positive association between financial stress measures and pain (severity, neck pain, back pain, and its interference on daily activities)

Satisfaction

@bailey1998: financial stress led to decreased personal and work-related satisfaction (β=-0.15), controlled for work benefits and compensation-related stress
@lazarevic2016: financial stress is associated with decreased life satisfaction (b=-0.30), adjusting by age, ethnicity, sex, depressive symptoms, and religiosity

Performance

@baker2019: high financial stress was related to decreased 1-year GPA (β=-0.12), controlling for gender, age, race/ethnicity, first-generation status, years in college, and employment status
@joo1998: increased financial stress led to decreased employee performance ratings by bosses (β=-0.18)
@wei2024: financial stress can boost work performance:
- Indirectly (b=0.17 in low exhaustion), moderated by emotional exhaustion, mediated by work engagement

Financial help-seeking

@lim2014: increased financial stress was related with increased help-seeking behavior (OR=1.21), controlled by gender, ethnicity, class rank, and type of institution attended

Substance abuse

@peirce1996 found financial stress was related with increased alcohol consumption, while controlling for sociodemographic variables:
- Acute financial stress increased number of alcohol problems (β=0.07), mediated by tangible social support (β=-0.13)
- Acute financial stress reduced drinking to cope behavior when mediated by appraisal social support (β=-0.06)
- Acute financial stress reduced heavy drinking when mediated by tangible social support (β=-0.08)
- Chronic financial stress was related to increased drinking to cope behavior (β=0.10), but nerfed by belonging social support (β=-0.07)
- Chronic financial stress reduced heavy drinking when moderated by tangible social support (β=-0.09)
- Chronic financial stress reduced alcohol problems when moderated by tangible social support (β=-0.14)
@serido2014 showed financial stress (through the strain domain) predicted future problematic drinking (b=0.04), controlling for socioeconomic and demographic factors

Financial behaviors

@lopezalvarado2021: financial stress was associated with both negative (β=0.04) and positive (β=-0.05) financial behaviors
@rahman2021: high financial stress predicts negative financial behaviors (β=-0.35)

Neighborhood stress

@montpetit2015, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic data: financial stress increased neighborhood stress (β=0.35)

Gambling behavior

@sisay2025 found financial stress to be an important predictor of gambling behavior severity (β=0.67)
@swanton2020 suggests debt stress leads (as a problem gambling mediator) to increased family gambling-related impact (β=0.18)

Inflammatory markers

@sturgeon2016: financial stress led increased systemic inflammation, as per:
- Increased interleukin-6 levels via a complete mediation through psychological well-being (b=0.01)
- Increased CRP levels via a complete moderation by perceived social status (b=0.05)

Parenting behavior

@wei2014 found family financial stress was related with poor parenting:
- Decreased parental school involvement (β=-0.14)
- Poor child rearing practice (β=-0.15)

Lack of control

@spoelma2024: financial stress was related with lack of control (b=0.36)
- This effect was significantly higher in males (b=0.72)

Abusive supervision

@spoelma2024: financial stress predicted increased abusive supervision (b=0.28), mediated by lack of control (b=0.15)

Communion striving

@spoelma2024: financial stress predicted increased communion striving (b=0.47)
- This effect was increased only in men (b=0.54)

Empathic leadership

@spoelma2024: financial stress had a significant impact on empathic leadership, through a complete mediation by communion striving (b=0.13)

Absenteeism

@kim2006: financial stress was related with increased use of work hours for personal finances (β=0.15)
@joo1998 found increased financial stress-related absenteeism in work space:
- Increased absence rates (β=0.15)
- Increased use of work hours for personal finances (β=0.140)

Financial well-being

@sorgente2023: objective financial stress was related to decreased financial well-being longitudinally (φ=-0.26)

gauerle

Explorer

Definitions

Theoretical frameworks

Measurements

Formal scales

Ad-hoc measures

Determinants

Age

Gender

Marital status

Ethnicity

Debt

Wealth

Income

Savings buffer

Job insecurity

Employment status

Education

Tenure

Household composition

Depression

Anxiety

Substance abuse

Self-concept

Financial literacy

Financial well-being

Financial behavior

General physical health

General mental health

Social support

Living location

Personality

Financial hardship

Historical years

Gambling behavior

Inflammatory markers

Country economy

Outcomes

Depressive symptoms

Financial well-being

Psychological well-being

General mental health

Psychological distress

Loneliness

Cognitive impairment

Suicide

Anxiety symptoms

General physical health

Satisfaction

Performance

Financial help-seeking

Substance abuse

Financial behaviors

Neighborhood stress

Gambling behavior

Inflammatory markers

Parenting behavior

Lack of control

Abusive supervision

Communion striving

Empathic leadership

Absenteeism

Financial well-being

Graph View

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